Pugel 17e · International Trade

Chapter 9 · Nontariff Barriers to Imports

This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import quota and a voluntary export restraint (VER), for both a small importing country and a large one. Provide an overview of other nontariff barriers (NTBs) to imports. Explore the relative sizes of the economic costs of tariffs and nontariff barriers. Continue the discussion of the World Trade Organization (WTO), including its role in liberalizing NTBs and its role in the settlement of international trade disputes.

知识点 8案例 4习题 60课件 17

下载 handout ↗下载章节 JSON ↗回到 ai-course 原始站点 ↗

教材导入与手册摘录

Governments use a variety of other barriers to imports in addition to tariffs. The chapter begins with examples of nontariff barriers to imports and several kinds of effects that they can have. NTBs lower imports by directly limiting the quantity of imports (e.g., import quota, VER, government procurement policies that prohibit or limit government purchasing of imports), increasing the costs of getting imports into the market (e.g., product standards and testing procedures), and creating uncertainty about whether imports will be permitted (e.g., arbitrary licensing procedures).

Early in the chapter the second in the series of boxes on Global Governance examines the role of the WTO in limiting and reducing NTBs. Recent rounds of multilateral trade negotiations have included NTBs, but with less success in lowering them than the WTO has had with tariffs. The box also discusses how the WTO has extended into nontraditional areas. The Uruguay Round, completed in 1993, began the process of liberalizing trade in agricultural products, established rules about protecting patents, copyrights, and trademarks, and began the process of setting rules for trade in services. The box concludes by examining the failure of the Doha Round to reach a broad agreement and WTO’s shift to achieving narrower multilateral agreements. (Later in the chapter, another box looks at “China in the WTO.”)

Also early in the chapter, the box “Dodging Protectionism,” the second in the series on the global financial and economic crisis, contrasts the big increase in protectionism during the Great Depression of the 1930s with the remarkably small increase in import barriers during the recent crisis.

核心知识点

The Import Quota

An import quota is a limit on the total quantity of imports of a product allowed into the country during a period of time.
Reasons why protectionists and government officials may favor quotas:
A quota ensures the quantity of imports is strictly limited.

Types of Nontariff Barriers to Imports

After describing the types of nontariff barriers to imports, the text of the chapter develops the analysis of an import quota. If both the domestic industry and the foreign export industry are perfectly competitive, then the effects of a quota are almost all the same as the effects of a tariff that permits the same quantity of imports.

Nontariff Barriers to Imports

Voluntary Export Restraints

A voluntary export restraint is an odd-looking trade barrier in which the importing country government compels the foreign exporting country to agree to “voluntarily” limit its exports to the importing country.
The export restraint usually requires that the foreign exporting firm act as a cartel by restricting sales and raising price.

How Big Are the Costs of Protection?

How relatively large are the economic costs of tariffs, quotas, VERs, and other nontariff barriers to imports? The chapter shows that the net national loss is probably a small fraction of the value of domestic production (GDP), for a country like the United States that has moderate import barriers and is not highly dependent on imports, if the only national losses are the deadweight-loss triangles.

The net national loss as a percentage of GDP:
Tariff rate
% reduction in imports

International Trade Disputes

Key WTO activities:
Forum for multilateral trade negotiations. Current Doha Round, now suspended
Administers trade agreements.

Protecting Domestic Producers against Import Competition

The chapter then examines three other NTBs based on product standards, domestic content requirements, and government procurement. Product standards can be worthy efforts to protect health, safety, and the environment. But they can also be written to limit imports and protect domestic producers. Domestic content requirements mandate that a minimum percentage of the value of a product produced or sold in a country be local value added (including domestically produced components and materials).

• Clearly helps those domestic producers.
• Harms domestic consumers of the products.
• Probably hurts the importing nation as a

The Effects of a Quota

An import quota is a limit on the total quantity of imports of a product allowed into the country during a period of time.
Reasons why protectionists and government officials may favor quotas:
A quota ensures the quantity of imports is strictly limited.

Area

A quota results in a higher price and larger production quantity, so domestic producers gain surplus equal to Area
With a higher price and smaller consumption quantity, domestic consumers lose surplus equal to Area

案例与应用

The final section of the chapter examines international trade disputes a ...

查看教材摘录

The final section of the chapter examines international trade disputes and how they can be resolved. The GATT had a dispute settlement procedure, but it was weak and became increasingly ineffective. The United States moved outside of the GATT by enacting Section 301 of the U.S. Trade Act of 1974, which aims to lower foreign barriers to U.S. exports by threatening to raise U.S. barriers to the foreign country’s exports if the foreign country does not change its policies. Other countries have resented such a heavy-handed unilateral approach, and well-being for both countries would probably decline if the U.S. government carries out the threat. Fortunately, the United States decreased its use of Section 301; the U.S. government is more likely to send its complaints about unfair foreign trade practices to the WTO for resolution. But, in a Section 301 case that began in 2017, the U.S. governm

VERs: Two Examples: In 1981 the U.S. government forced the Japanese ...

查看教材摘录

VERs: Two Examples: In 1981 the U.S. government forced the Japanese government to impose a “voluntary” export restraint, so that total Japanese automobile exports in 1981 had to be 8 percent less than the total exports in 1980. The Japanese government told Honda (and each of the other Japanese auto companies) the maximum number of cars that the company could export to the United States. With quantity strictly limited, Honda raised the prices of the cars that they did export. For the Civic, the increase was about $1,000. When your grandfather went to the Honda dealer to buy a new Civic, he saw and paid the higher price. Essentially, a slice of area c in a graph like Figure 9.2 was the extra $1,000 that your grandfather had to pay for the Civic in 1981 (above what he would have paid for a new Civic in 1980).

The VER is usually not voluntary, but it is an export ...

查看教材摘录

The VER is usually not voluntary, but it is an export restraint. Because the government of the exporting country must organize its exporters into a kind of cartel, they should realize that they should raise the export price. If the exporters do raise the export price, then the exporters get the amount that otherwise would be government revenue with a tariff, or the price markup with an import quota. The net national loss is larger for the importing country with a VER because of this additional rectangle loss. The box “VERs: Two Examples” discusses (1) the costs to the United States of the VER on imports of Japanese automobiles and (2) the web of export restraints that developed to limit international trade in textile and clothing products.

This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import ...

查看教材摘录

课件纲要

Protecting Domestic Producers against Import Competition
The Import Quota
The Effects of a Quota
Area
Fixed Favoritism
Auction
Resource-Using Procedures
Voluntary Export Restraints (VERs)
Other Nontariff Barriers
How Big Are the Costs of Protection?
World Trade Organization (WTO)
World Trade Organization: Dispute Settlement

习题精选

题目 1

Restricting imports into a small country by the government

A protects domestic producers from foreign competition.
B increases consumer welfare in the country.
C increases the general welfare of the importing nation.
D all of the above.

答案：A · protects domestic producers from foreign competition.

题目 2

Which of the following is NOT true of nontariff barriers to imports?

A Nontariff barriers can limit imports with greater certainty than tariffs.
B Unlike tariffs, nontariff barriers do not increase the price of imported goods in the domestic markets.
C Some nontariff barriers create uncertainty about the conditions under which imports will be permitted.
D Like tariffs, nontariff barriers result in a net welfare loss in a small country.

答案：B · Unlike tariffs, nontariff barriers do not increase the price of imported goods in the domestic markets.

题目 3

One of the reasons protectionists and government officials may favor using a quota instead of a tariff is

A quotas generate more revenue for the government than tariffs.
B quotas ensure that the quantities of imports are strictly limited.
C quotas create less market distortions than tariffs.
D quotas give less power to politicians than tariffs.

答案：B · quotas ensure that the quantities of imports are strictly limited.

题目 4

Which of the following is true of a quota?

A Imposition of a quota causes domestic prices to fall below world prices.
B Imposition of a quota by a country causes the world price of the good imported by this country to rise.
C A quota is a quantitative restriction on imports.
D A quota is usually less inefficient than a tariff.

答案：C · A quota is a quantitative restriction on imports.

题目 5

Under which of the following situations will a tariff imposed by a country fail to reduce imports by as much as expected?

A The current tariff rate is less than the prohibitive tariff rate.
B The foreign export quantity supplied of the good imported by this country is more responsive to changes in the world price than was expected.
C The domestic supply of the import-competing products is more price-elastic than was expected.
D The domestic quantity demanded of the imported product is less responsive to price changes than was expected.

答案：D · The domestic quantity demanded of the imported product is less responsive to price changes than was expected.

题目 6

In the case of a small country, the effects of a quota and a tariff are (almost) identical if

A the government allocates licenses for free to importers using a rule or process that involves (almost) no resource cost.
B the government auctions off import licenses to the highest bidder.
C the government allocates licenses to importers through application and selection procedures that require the use of substantial resources.
D the government allocates import licenses directly to the public using a free lottery system.

答案：B · the government auctions off import licenses to the highest bidder.

题目 7

Which of the following is a means of allocating import licenses by assigning the licenses without competition, applications, or negotiation?

A Fixed favoritism
B Resource-using application procedures
C Domestic content requirements
D None of the above

答案：A · Fixed favoritism

题目 8

The figure below shows the market for MP3 players in a small country. Dd and Sd are the domestic demand and domestic supply curves of the MP3 players. QQ is the quota quantity. How many MP3 players can be imported from abroad after the quota is imposed?

A 2 million
B 5 million
C 12 million
D 17 million

答案：B · 5 million

题目 9

The figure below shows the market for MP3 players in a small country. Dd and Sd are the domestic demand and domestic supply curves of the MP3 players. QQ is the quota quantity. The quota on MP3 players will cause domestic producers to

A gain $150 million.
B lose $100 million.
C gain $110 million.
D lose $120 million.

答案：C · gain $110 million.

题目 10

A lose $25 million.
B gain $25 million.
C lose $170 million.
D lose $195 million.

答案：D · lose $195 million.

题目 11

The figure below shows the market for MP3 players in a small country. Dd and Sd are the domestic demand and domestic supply curves of the MP3 players. QQ is the quota quantity. According to the figure, how much revenue can the government expect to receive if the import licenses are auctioned?

A $20 million
B $50 million
C $120 million
D $170 million

答案：B · $50 million

题目 12

The figure below shows the market for MP3 players in a small country. Dd and Sd are the domestic demand and domestic supply curves of the MP3 players. QQ is the quota quantity. If the government auctions the import licenses, the quota on MP3 players will result in a(n) ________ in the national well-being by

A decrease; $35 million.
B decrease; $85 million.
C increase; $50 million.
D increase; $195 million.

答案：A · decrease; $35 million.

教材 handout 全文

为避免页面过长，全文默认折叠；需要时可直接展开阅读或下载。

展开全文 handout

# 第9章 Nontariff Barriers to Imports

## 章节概览
This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import quota and a voluntary export restraint (VER), for both a small importing country and a large one. Provide an overview of other nontariff barriers (NTBs) to imports. Explore the relative sizes of the economic costs of tariffs and nontariff barriers. Continue the discussion of the World Trade Organization (WTO), including its role in liberalizing NTBs and its role in the settlement of international trade disputes.

## 知识点
### 1. The Import Quota
- 教学说明：This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import quota and a voluntary export restraint (VER), for both a small importing country and a large one. Provide an overview of other nontariff barriers (NTBs) to imports. Explore the relative sizes of the economic costs of tariffs and nontariff barriers. Continue the discussion of the World Trade Organization (WTO), including its role in liberalizing NTBs and its role in the settlement of international trade disputes.
- 支撑要点：An import quota is a limit on the total quantity of imports of a product allowed into the country during a period of time.
- 支撑要点：Reasons why protectionists and government officials may favor quotas:
- 支撑要点：A quota ensures the quantity of imports is strictly limited.
- 来源类型：manual

### 2. Types of Nontariff Barriers to Imports
- 教学说明：After describing the types of nontariff barriers to imports, the text of the chapter develops the analysis of an import quota. If both the domestic industry and the foreign export industry are perfectly competitive, then the effects of a quota are almost all the same as the effects of a tariff that permits the same quantity of imports.
- 支撑要点：Nontariff Barriers to Imports
- 来源类型：manual

### 3. Voluntary Export Restraints
- 教学说明：The VER is usually not voluntary, but it is an export restraint. Because the government of the exporting country must organize its exporters into a kind of cartel, they should realize that they should raise the export price. If the exporters do raise the export price, then the exporters get the amount that otherwise would be government revenue with a tariff, or the price markup with an import quota.
- 支撑要点：A voluntary export restraint is an odd-looking trade barrier in which the importing country government compels the foreign exporting country to agree to “voluntarily” limit its exports to the importing country.
- 支撑要点：The export restraint usually requires that the foreign exporting firm act as a cartel by restricting sales and raising price.
- 来源类型：manual

### 4. How Big Are the Costs of Protection?
- 教学说明：How relatively large are the economic costs of tariffs, quotas, VERs, and other nontariff barriers to imports? The chapter shows that the net national loss is probably a small fraction of the value of domestic production (GDP), for a country like the United States that has moderate import barriers and is not highly dependent on imports, if the only national losses are the deadweight-loss triangles.
- 支撑要点：The net national loss as a percentage of GDP:
- 支撑要点：Tariff rate
- 支撑要点：% reduction in imports
- 来源类型：manual

### 5. International Trade Disputes
- 教学说明：This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import quota and a voluntary export restraint (VER), for both a small importing country and a large one. Provide an overview of other nontariff barriers (NTBs) to imports. Explore the relative sizes of the economic costs of tariffs and nontariff barriers. Continue the discussion of the World Trade Organization (WTO), including its role in liberalizing NTBs and its role in the settlement of international trade disputes.
- 支撑要点：Key WTO activities:
- 支撑要点：Forum for multilateral trade negotiations.  Current Doha Round, now suspended
- 支撑要点：Administers trade agreements.
- 来源类型：manual

### 6. Protecting Domestic Producers against Import Competition
- 教学说明：The chapter then examines three other NTBs based on product standards, domestic content requirements, and government procurement. Product standards can be worthy efforts to protect health, safety, and the environment. But they can also be written to limit imports and protect domestic producers. Domestic content requirements mandate that a minimum percentage of the value of a product produced or sold in a country be local value added (including domestically produced components and materials).
- 支撑要点：• Clearly helps those domestic producers.
- 支撑要点：• Harms domestic consumers of the products.
- 支撑要点：• Probably hurts the importing nation as a
- 来源类型：manual

### 7. The Effects of a Quota
- 教学说明：This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import quota and a voluntary export restraint (VER), for both a small importing country and a large one. Provide an overview of other nontariff barriers (NTBs) to imports. Explore the relative sizes of the economic costs of tariffs and nontariff barriers. Continue the discussion of the World Trade Organization (WTO), including its role in liberalizing NTBs and its role in the settlement of international trade disputes.
- 支撑要点：An import quota is a limit on the total quantity of imports of a product allowed into the country during a period of time.
- 支撑要点：Reasons why protectionists and government officials may favor quotas:
- 支撑要点：A quota ensures the quantity of imports is strictly limited.
- 来源类型：manual

### 8. Area
- 教学说明：Early in the chapter the second in the series of boxes on Global Governance examines the role of the WTO in limiting and reducing NTBs. Recent rounds of multilateral trade negotiations have included NTBs, but with less success in lowering them than the WTO has had with tariffs. The box also discusses how the WTO has extended into nontraditional areas.
- 支撑要点：A quota results in a higher price and larger production quantity, so domestic producers gain surplus equal to Area
- 支撑要点：With a higher price and smaller consumption quantity, domestic consumers lose surplus equal to Area
- 来源类型：manual

## 案例
### 案例 1: The final section of the chapter examines international trade disputes a ...
The final section of the chapter examines international trade disputes and how they can be resolved. The GATT had a dispute settlement procedure, but it was weak and became increasingly ineffective. The United States moved outside of the GATT by enacting Section 301 of the U.S. Trade Act of 1974, which aims to lower foreign barriers to U.S.

### 案例 2: VERs: Two Examples: In 1981 the U.S. government forced the Japanese ...
VERs: Two Examples: In 1981 the U.S. government forced the Japanese government to impose a “voluntary” export restraint, so that total Japanese automobile exports in 1981 had to be 8 percent less than the total exports in 1980. The Japanese government told Honda (and each of the other Japanese auto companies) the maximum number of cars that the company could export to the United States.

### 案例 3: The VER is usually not voluntary, but it is an export ...
The VER is usually not voluntary, but it is an export restraint. Because the government of the exporting country must organize its exporters into a kind of cartel, they should realize that they should raise the export price. If the exporters do raise the export price, then the exporters get the amount that otherwise would be government revenue with a tariff, or the price markup with an import quota.

### 案例 4: This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import ...
This chapter has four major purposes: Present analysis of an import quota and a voluntary export restraint (VER), for both a small importing country and a large one. Provide an overview of other nontariff barriers (NTBs) to imports. Explore the relative sizes of the economic costs of tariffs and nontariff barriers. Continue the discussion of the World Trade Organization (WTO), including its role in liberalizing NTBs and its role in the settlement of international trade disputes.

## 习题
### 题目 1
Restricting imports into a small country by the government
- A) protects domestic producers from foreign competition.
- B) increases consumer welfare in the country.
- C) increases the general welfare of the importing nation.
- D) all of the above.

### 题目 2
Which of the following is NOT true of nontariff barriers to imports?
- A) Nontariff barriers can limit imports with greater certainty than tariffs.
- B) Unlike tariffs, nontariff barriers do not increase the price of imported goods in the domestic markets.
- C) Some nontariff barriers create uncertainty about the conditions under which imports will be permitted.
- D) Like tariffs, nontariff barriers result in a net welfare loss in a small country.

### 题目 3
One of the reasons protectionists and government officials may favor using a quota instead of a tariff is
- A) quotas generate more revenue for the government than tariffs.
- B) quotas ensure that the quantities of imports are strictly limited.
- C) quotas create less market distortions than tariffs.
- D) quotas give less power to politicians than tariffs.

### 题目 4
Which of the following is true of a quota?
- A) Imposition of a quota causes domestic prices to fall below world prices.
- B) Imposition of a quota by a country causes the world price of the good imported by this country to rise.
- C) A quota is a quantitative restriction on imports.
- D) A quota is usually less inefficient than a tariff.

### 题目 5
Under which of the following situations will a tariff imposed by a country fail to reduce imports by as much as expected?
- A) The current tariff rate is less than the prohibitive tariff rate.
- B) The foreign export quantity supplied of the good imported by this country is more responsive to changes in the world price than was expected.
- C) The domestic supply of the import-competing products is more price-elastic than was expected.
- D) The domestic quantity demanded of the imported product is less responsive to price changes than was expected.

### 题目 6
In the case of a small country, the effects of a quota and a tariff are (almost) identical if
- A) the government allocates licenses for free to importers using a rule or process that involves (almost) no resource cost.
- B) the government auctions off import licenses to the highest bidder.
- C) the government allocates licenses to importers through application and selection procedures that require the use of substantial resources.
- D) the government allocates import licenses directly to the public using a free lottery system.

### 题目 7
Which of the following is a means of allocating import licenses by assigning the licenses without competition, applications, or negotiation?
- A) Fixed favoritism
- B) Resource-using application procedures
- C) Domestic content requirements
- D) None of the above

### 题目 8
The figure below shows the market for MP3 players in a small country. Dd and Sd are the domestic demand and domestic supply curves of the MP3 players. QQ is the quota quantity. How many MP3 players can be imported from abroad after the quota is imposed?
- A) 2 million
- B) 5 million
- C) 12 million
- D) 17 million

## 参考答案
- 题目 1: 答案：A | 选项内容：protects domestic producers from foreign competition. | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：1 Easy
- 题目 2: 答案：B | 选项内容：Unlike tariffs, nontariff barriers do not increase the price of imported goods in the domestic markets. | Topic：Types of Nontariff Barriers to Imports | Difficulty：1 Easy
- 题目 3: 答案：B | 选项内容：quotas ensure that the quantities of imports are strictly limited. | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：1 Easy
- 题目 4: 答案：C | 选项内容：A quota is a quantitative restriction on imports. | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：1 Easy
- 题目 5: 答案：D | 选项内容：The domestic quantity demanded of the imported product is less responsive to price changes than was expected. | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：2 Medium
- 题目 6: 答案：B | 选项内容：the government auctions off import licenses to the highest bidder. | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：1 Easy
- 题目 7: 答案：A | 选项内容：Fixed favoritism | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：1 Easy
- 题目 8: 答案：B | 选项内容：5 million | Topic：The Import Quota | Difficulty：3 Hard

## AI / NextLab 使用建议
- Tariff Welfare Lab：将《Nontariff Barriers to Imports》对应的理论或政策机制放到贸易分析实验室中做交互式验证。 https://digitconnection.ai/nextlab/